The origin of life is a topic that has always perplexed scientists all over the world. Since the discovery of ribozymes in the 1980s, some scientists hypothesized that early life forms by RNA storeing genetic information and catalyzing biochemical reactions, a task now thought to be handled by DNA and proteins. However, the lack of a logical explanation for the formation of two essential base chemicals of RNA, cytosine and uracil, suggest that alternative bases might have been used instead. Dr. Stanley Miller of UCSD, known for his theory that lightning bolts might have catalyzed the synthesis of amino acids and created life, discovered how cytosine and uracil could have formed in primitive Earth. He discovered that when concentrated urea solution and cyanoacetaldehyde are heated, high yields of cytosine are formed, which can create urail with a simple hydrolysis of water. Concentrated urea and cyanoacetaldehyde are compounds that were readily available in primitive Earth, in evaporating lagoons or pools on drying beaches and even from lightning. Researchers at Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and the Massachusetts General Hospital discovered that complex ribozymes could be created fairly easily because they could have formed in just a single step instead of evolving over long periods of time. The researchers were able to create a large and complex ligase from a very limited sampling of sequences space. Together, the two researches provide evidence that offer more insight on the origin of life.